The outbreak of World War II set in motion a massive expansion of the United States Marine Corps, leading to a 24-fold increase in size by August 1945. This book is the first of several volumes to examine the Corps' meteoric wartime expansion and the evolution of its units. It covers the immediate pre-war period, the rush to deploy defense forces in the war's early months, and the Marines' first combat operations on Guadalcanal, New Georgia, and Bougainville. It focuses on the 1st, 2d, and 3d Marine Divisions (MarDivs) and the provisional 1st, 2d, and 3d Marine Brigades (MarBdes).

This highly detailed study provides a clear account of how the British Army was organised, who commanded it, and how it functioned in the field during the Peninsular War. Focusing principally on infantry, cavalry and artillery, including foreign units in British pay, it provides a detailed and comprehensive order of battle. Doctrine, training, tactics and equipment are discussed in depth, and medical services and engineers are also covered. Concise biographical details of key commanders, over 60 unit tree diagrams, organisational tables, plus numerous illustrations make this an essential reference work for students of this period.

The armored divisions were the shock force of the US Army's combat formations during the fighting in Northwest Europe in the final year of the war. Of the 16 such divisions formed during the war, all but one served in the European Theater of Operations. This book examines the organizational structure, operational doctrine and combat mission of these divisions from D-Day onwards, describing how doctrines and tactics were changed as the divisions were forced to adapt to the battlefield realities of combat against an experienced foe. The lessons drawn by the armored divisions from the bitter fighting in Northwest Europe from 1944 to 1945 strongly shaped postwar US Army doctrine.

The German Army of World War II was the first to fully realise the benefits of using airborne troops alongside armoured formations. German Airborne Divisions became an integral part of the blitzkrieg operations that overran much of Western Europe during 1940 and 1941, from the historic raid on the Belgian fortress of Eben-Emael to the pyrrhic victory over British and Commonwealth forces on the island of Crete. This title looks at the creation, evolution, and early operational deployment of the German airborne forces ('Fallschirmtruppe'), through highly detailed orders of battle, TOEs and examinations of crucial aspects such as doctrine, training, command and control, and the concept of vertical envelopment.

The Plains Indian War was one of the most controversial conflicts in American military history, as the US Army faced a tough opponent that challenged it for decades following the end of the Civil War. The Army leadership endured a severe lack of resources, political constraints, an indifferent public, tough environmental conditions, and other problems of the frontier. Army officers and men had to adapt to these constraints, and this period also proved to be a trial of the ability and endurance of the common soldier. This title details the organization, development, training, tactics and command structures of the US Army during its subjugation of the Plains Indian tribes.

Upon the entry of the United States into World War I, the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) were created by the War Department on short notice from existing units, filled up with men from the training camps and deployed with only their personal weapons and equipment. The US Army was not prepared for combat in France, and the remarkable achievement of the AEF's commanding officer, John J Pershing, was the creation of an American field army, built and nurtured from the bottom up. This book details the organizational structure, training and doctrine of the AEF and illustrates how it came to make a significant contribution to Allied victory in World War I.

In late1944 the US Marine Corps prepared for the toughest battles of the war. It had grown to 35,598 officers, 5,384 officer candidates, and 366,353 enlisted Marines, totaling 431,573 personnel, and now comprised of two amphibious corps, six divisions, 26 non-divisional artillery battalions, and numerous support and service units. Following on from Battle Orders 1 and 7, this book examines the continuing development of the Corps' organization, its training, tactics, weaponry, and command structure. It details the formation of the 5th and 6th Marine Divisions and the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade, and examines the Corps' performance in the brutal battles on Guam, Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa, and its deployment as an occupation force.

The Japanese conquest of the Pacific comprised of a complex series of widely scattered operations; their intent was to neutralize American, Commonwealth, and Dutch forces, seize regions rich in economic resources, and secure an outer defense line for their empire. Although their conquest was successful, the forces deployed from Japan and China were not always ideally trained, equipped and armed. The South Seas and tropics proved challenging to these soldiers who were used to milder climates, and they were a less lethal enemy on the Chinese mainland. This book examines the overall structure of the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA), the forces in existence at the beginning of World War II and the organization of the forces committed to the conquest of the Pacific.

Overshadowed by the United States Army's armored divisions, the separate tank and tank destroyer battalions had the difficult mission of providing armored support for US infantry divisions in the 1944–45 campaigns. This book details the organizational structures and deployment of these units: the standard tank battalions, tank battalions (light), tank battalions (mine exploder) and tank battalions (special), self-propelled and towed tank destroyer battalions. It also covers the tactics used by these units in their attempts to assist the infantry, as well as providing a listing of all the battalions that took part in the Northwest Europe campaign.

Between December 1941 and May 1942, the British Empire suffered a series of humiliating defeats in the Far East. Three years later the Japanese were defeated by British and Commonwealth forces at Kohima and Imphal and in the battles for Burma. This transformation in the fortunes was in large part due to the development of jungle warfare doctrine and the resulting improvements in training, tactics and equipment. This book examines British Army conventional forces that fought in the Far East, showing how the dissemination of doctrine improved training, and helped 14th Army's infantry divisions secure victory.

The 1941 Japanese Pacific onslaught saw the defeat of Allied forces on all fronts, with the Philippines, Netherlands East Indies, and Commonwealth possessions falling under their control. During 1942-43, the Japanese consolidated their gains and redeployed forces in an attempt to break the Southern Lifeline between America and Australia. These plans were affected by the defeat at Midway, which forced the Japanese onto the defensive. This book examines Japanese forces employed in the follow-on conquests of 1942-43, and describes how unit organization, weaponry, and equipment were found lacking in the harsh environment of the Solomon Islands and on New Guinea.

Following the battle for Crete in May 1941, Hitler refused to undertake any further large-scale airborne operations due to the high casualty rate. The Fallschirmjäger subsequently took up a new role as elite 'line' infantry, and they served in the Mediterranean from 1942 to 1945, taking part in the conflict in North Africa, Sicily and Italy. Their performance in such hard-fought battles as El Alamein and Monte Cassino reinforced their reputation as some of the toughest troops of World War II. This book explores their changing role in organisation, training and doctrine as the paratroopers developed into Germany's finest frontline soldiers.

Over 200 divisions fought on the Western Front during the first year of World War I and those best suited to the challenges of trench warfare were the six infantry divisions of the original British Expeditionary Force (BEF). Their superiority was partially due to the high quality of the divisions' personnel and the first-class equipment provided to them. This book describes the organization and equipment of the BEF at the outbreak of the war in 1914, and relates how its structure changed both to accommodate the waves of Territorial and New Army units that were raised and to adapt to the rigours of conditions on the Western Front.

The US Army infantry division was an intricate system of men and equipment welded together by doctrine and organization into an entity that could fight, maneuver, communicate within itself as well as with outside entities, and regenerate itself through a supply and replacement system. This book examines the organizational development, mobilization, deployment and combat actions of World War II US Army infantry divisions up until the end of 1943. Among the units covered are the separate infantry regiments and battalions of the "standard" type, showing how the Army's new "triangular" infantry division (based on three infantry regiments) evolved from the earlier "square" division (based on four).

From their establishment in June 1940, the Commando units conducted a succession of daring hit-and-run raids from the sea into North-West Europe, Scandinavia, Italy and the Middle East. Among the highly publicised Commando operations were the raids on Vaagso, Dieppe, and St Nazaire. The Commandos also spawned a range of other Special Forces, including the Special Air Service, Special Boat Service and the Parachute Regiment. This Battle Orders title provides a detailed examination of the Army (and later Royal Marine) Commandos raised in the United Kingdom, from their inception in 1940 through to 1946, when the Army Commandos were disbanded and the role was assigned exclusively to the Royal Marines.

This book covers the US Marine Corps in the Vietnam War, centring on the structure and function of the two Fleet Marine Force (FMF) divisions and the corps command level, III Marine Amphibious Force (III MAF). This detailed examination of III MAF explores its infantry, armor, artillery, aviation, service and engineer elements. Author Ed Gilbert explains how they functioned and highlights tensions that arose in the command structure as the war progressed. He also illustrates how the two FMF divisions bore the brunt of the fighting in the more conventional war against Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army units, and the very different role of the four Combined Action Battalions based in Viatnamese Villages.

In 1940 a British offensive in the Western Desert provoked a major Italian military disaster. By early February 1941 the whole of Cyrenaica had been lost, and German help became necessary to avoid the loss of the entire of Libya. On 14 February 1941 the first echelons of German troops hurriedly arrived at the port of Tripoli, starting the 27-month German engagement in Northern Africa. This book covers the complex and oft-changing organisation and structure of German forces in North Africa from their first deployment through to the conclusion of the battle of El Alamein, an engagement that irrevocably changed the strategic situation in the Western Desert.

The Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO) saw the first operational deployment of US armoured divisions in World War II, and the experience proved chastening for the 1st Armored Division when it suffered defeat at the hands of Rommel’s Afrika Korps at the battle of Kasserine Pass. This title covers the organization of these early US armored divisions, as well as the independent tank and tank destroyer battalions that accompanied them. It details the evolution if US armoured warfare tactics and doctrine, learned from the difficult experiences of North Africa, and illustrates how they were used elsewhere in the MTO, particularly in the Italian Peninsula.

While the best-known multi-division airborne operations were carried out in the European Theater of Operations (such as the Normandy landings and Market Garden), a significant number of airborne assaults were conducted in the Mediterranean Theater in North Africa, Sicily, Italy, and Southern France. These included parachute drops and in some instances glider assaults and provided valuable learning experience for the men and units that would lead the invasion of Europe in June 1944. This author discusses each unit's internal organization, weapons and equipment (focusing on unique and unusual items), commanders, training, how the unit was raised, its missions, and the extensive combat operations it was involved in, with special attention given to airborne operations. Task organization for combat and details of attached units are also dealt with, together with the unit's command relationship with higher headquarters. The units that discussed in this book include the 82d Airborne Division, 1st Special Service Force, 1st Airborne Task Force (1ATF), 509th Parachute Infantry Battalion, 325th Glider Infantry Regiment, 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 517th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 1st Battalion, 551st Parachute Infantry Regiment, and the 550th Airborne Infantry Battalion. The book also covers pre-war and early-war airborne units, detailing how the first ones were formed and the tactical thinking involved. Additionally it provides the context and background information for the other two titles on US Airborne Units in the European Theater 1944-45 (Spring 2007) and US Airborne Units in the Pacific Theater 1941-45 (Spring 2007). These volumes will ultimately provide a complete organizational record of all US Airborne units in World War II.

Although harsh and inhospitable, the North African theater of World War II proved to be a perfect environment for irregular warfare and the deployment of Special Forces. Four countries took part in this 'shadow war': Great Britain, most successfully of all; Free France, including a surprising solitary campaign from Chad; Italy, mainly engaged in defending the Libyan southern line of communications; and Germany, operating an extensive spy network throughout Egypt. Andrea Molinari deals with the development and organization of these unique units, and examines how the conditions in North Africa affected the Special Forces of all the countries involved as unconventional units were increasingly used to fight in unconventional conditions in the depths of the "sea of sand" between Libya and Egypt. Accompanied by evocative wartime photography, comprehensive maps and detailed organizational charts, this is the first complete coverage of desert raiders on both sides of the war. With Dr. Duncan Anderson, Head of War Studies at the British military academy and leading military historian, acting as consulting editor, this book is a definitive analysis of the world's first Special Forces.

The delivery of entire divisions to battlefields behind enemy lines by parachute and glider was a unique feature of World War II. Failures at D-Day landings necessitated that, in order to avoid severe dispersion of paratroopers, US tactics be rethought and daylight airdrops be implemented. The new tactics were first put to the test in September 1944, with the landings by the 82d and 101st Airborne divisions as part of Operation Market Garden. Although the US landings were successful, the operation as a whole failed to secure its objectives. Nevertheless, both divisions subsequently played a vital defensive role withstanding the German Ardennes offensive. By 1945, another division had joined the airborne forces, and plans commenced for further airborne operations. The most significant of these was Operation Varsity, the airborne element of the Rhine River crossing in March 1945, which propelled the Allied armies into the heart of Nazi Germany, and effectively secured the outcome of the war. Paying special attention to often overlooked aspects of airborne operations, Battle Orders 25 gives a detailed account of the successes and failures of the US Airborne divisions within Europe, focusing on their organizational structure during 1944-45, and covering two of the world's finest units: the 82d and 101st 'Screaming Eagles.'

Long before the Second Punic War (218 - 201 BC), Rome's influence extended no further than the Alps, and the wars that it fought consisted of small-scale raids and cattle rustling, with perhaps the occasional battle between armies. Nevertheless, within a century the seeds of an empire had been sown in Iberia, Africa, and the Greek east, and the Roman Republican army became the most successful of its day, establishing standards of discipline, organization, and efficiency that set a bench mark for the later armies of Rome. With the evolution of the Roman Republic came the adoption of the Manipular legion, a formation taken from the hoplite phalanx and first used in mass deployment against the North African nation of Carthage, during the Punic Wars. In this book Nic Fields examines the evolution of the Roman army from its defeat at Cannae through to their final success at Zama which saw a small city-based force evolve into a Mediterranean powerhouse, demonstrating how and why it became the most highly organized, sophisticated force in the ancient world.

Tim Moreman examines the creation and deployment of British 8th Army, probably the most famous military formation raised by the British during World War II. Formed in September 1941 from the Western Desert Force, it went on to wage a lengthy, hard-fought campaign against German and Italian troops across the deserts of North Africa. It was composed of British and Commonwealth troops - as well as smaller numbers of French and Polish troops. Additionally, a variety of specialized elite forces came under its umbrella including the Special Air Service, Popski's Private Army and the Long Range Desert Group. This book will provide a fascinating insight into these unconventional troops who became the inspiration for today's Special Forces. It was also the first Allied army to rely on close air support; a revolutionary, war-winning tactic that would shaped combined forces strategy throughout the rest of the war. The Desert War was unlike any other fought by the British Army. The hot, dusty, and unforgiving climate and environment in which its troops lived, moved, and fought was almost as troublesome as the enemy. During its two-year period of service in North Africa, 8th Army underwent major changes in organization, equipment, and training to adapt it to the terrain. Discover the difficulties of desert warfare and how these were overcome by the 8th Army to defeat Rommel and become masters of the desert.

Bruce Gudmundsson guides us expertly through the history of the successes and failures of the British Expeditionary Force in 1916 as it struggled to form into a modern army and turn the tide of the First World War, providing an in-depth analysis of how and why the BEF was converted from an antiquated unprofessional force into the army as we know it. Examining the tactical innovations that accompanied this change, and the conflicting strategies and tactics that it was expected to pursue, Gudmundsson examines the difficulties facing the British Army, including the integration of the three separate armies that had been mobilized for the war. Also examined are the problems encountered with the bewildering number of new technologies in use, from novelties such as combat aircraft, tanks, armored cars to trench mortars, and more than a thousand pieces of siege artillery.

US Special Forces in Vietnam created and trained the Civilian Irregular Defense Group, a large paramilitary organization designed to operate out of fortified camps in remote areas and protect the local population from Viet Cong incursions, whilst conducting border surveillance, raids and combat patrols in the local area. Their fortified camps were often overrun by the Viet Cong and, having no spare manpower, the US Special Forces created dedicated reaction units which could act in a responsive and flexible manner - Mobile Strike (MIKE) Forces. This book examines the MIKE units, which were formed from the CIDG, the parachute and airmobile training they were given, and the operations that they undertook, from relieving friendly camps to large-scale independent offensive operations. Written by Gordon L. Rottman, a former US Special Forces soldier in Vietnam, this title provides the first organizational history of the MIKE forces in this conflict.

By the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 Britain was the undisputed master of the seas owing to the power and strength of the Royal Navy. Its fleets, comprising ships of the line, frigates, and gunboats, had doubled in size since the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793, totaling almost a thousand capital vessels. This book examines the commanders, men, and ships of the Royal Navy during the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars, and discusses the Navy's command structure (from the Admiralty down to ship level) and its organization at sea. The tactics employed in action by a fleet, a squadron, and individual ships are also discussed, as are the medical services available, providing a fascinating insight into the navy that ruled the waves.

At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, Germany's armored forces - the Panzerwaffe - were still in their infancy. The restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles meant that German tank development had to be conducted in secret. Initial armor campaigns in Poland were not completely successful and changes were needed before the invasion of France. This book examines the organizational changes, developments in doctrine and tactics, and improved command and control that provided the basis for the spectacular success of the Panzer divisions in 1940. Although the Panzerwaffe was still largely inferior to its enemies in terms of both tank numbers and quality, it effectively adapted and developed those doctrines and principles of warfare that had shaped German fighting since the 19th century. Achieving tactical and operational surprise, the Panzer divisions succeeded in breaking through enemy defences in the Ardennes and enveloping a large number of hostile forces at Dunkirk. The legend of the Blitzkrieg was born.

This title provides detailed information about how US Army units were organised and operated in America's longest war. Vietnam Special Forces veteran Gordon Rottman examines the different types of infantry battalions and the units that supported them, their training and organisation down to platoon level.

The Roman Legions were the most highly organized troops of the ancient world, but the process of turning the Legions from what was essentially a part-time citizen militia into the professional force that first made Rome the dominant power in the Mediterranean and then built an empire that stretched across the known world, was no small feat Focusing on the organizational changes in the Roman Army during the Civil Wars, Nic Fields examines the role played by Caius Marius and his far-reaching reforms, which included having professional volunteers from the lowest social class enter the army in search of the possibility of plunder. He goes on to examine the consequences of encouraging these soldiers to follow their commanders without question, which broke the allegiance of the army to the Roman state, a trend that gave rise to militarily ambitious men such as Sulla, Pompeius, Caesar, Antonius, and Octavian. With the nuts and bolts detail that readers demand from the Battle Orders series, this is an intriguing description of how the Roman army grew, modernized, rebelled and finally helped build an empire, complete with full organizational charts, photographs and detailed maps.

On June 22, 1941 when Germany attacked the Soviet Union, her Panzer divisions were to play a major role in this titanic struggle. At its peak, 19 out of the 21 existing Panzer Divisions were deployed against the Soviets. Although overwhelmed by Soviet numbers, the superior skill and capability of the German Panzer divisions meant that in three months the Germans, with the Panzers as their spearhead had advanced deep into Soviet territory, inflicting terrible losses on the Soviets. However, after these initial successes the German offensive began to falter, culminating in the disastrous defeat at Kursk. In this book, the organizational history of the Panzer divisions is covered, from the early successes of 1941 through to the dramatic re-organization of the Panzer Divisions and the introduction of revised Blitzkrieg tactics as the war began to turn and the Panzer divisions experienced their first taste of defeat. Pier Paolo Battistellii examines the impact of the introduction of the Panther tank shortly before the final failure at Kursk, and goes on to explain the evolution of German armored doctrine, tactics and the command system, providing a detailed overview of the major combat actions of the Panzer Divisions on the Eastern Front.

The Sengoku Jidai or "Age of Warring States" is the time of the samurai - Japan's military aristocracy. A period of endemic warfare where the absence of unifying central control led to constant struggles between the daimyo (or "Great Names") who sought to protect and extend the influence of their respective families through political and military means. However, it was also a time of great military change, as technology advanced rapidly, and the introduction of European gunpowder revolutionized infantry tactics and fortification technology. This title provides a highly detailed technical account of the samurai armies of Japan's Sengoku Jidai from the outbreak of the Onin War in 1467 to the publication of the final revised schedule for supplying troops to the Tokugawa Shogunate - by that time the government of united Japan - in 1649. It examines the complicated nature of family and clan that governed so much of the initial organization of the armies, how this changed over the period and how the battlefield tactics developed over a series of major encounters such as Nagashino and Sekigahara. Packed with rare photographs, maps, organizational charts and detailed text written by samurai expert Stephen Turnbull, this book is a unique insight into the organization of the armies of the samurai and is essential reading for anyone interested in the subject.

The Imperial Army established by Augustus drew heavily on the nomenclature and traditions of the late Roman Republic, but was revolutionary in its design. He decided to meet all the military needs of the Empire from a standing, professional army. Military service became a career, and pay and service conditions were established that took account of the categories of soldier in the army: the Praetorian Guard, the citizen legionary troops, and the non-citizen auxiliaries. Enlistment was for 25 years (16 in the Guard), and men were sometimes retained even longer. The loyalty of the new army was to the emperor as commander-in-chief, and not to either the Senate or the People of Rome. Imperial legions became permanent units with their own numbers and titles and many were to remain in existence for centuries to come. Likewise, the auxiliary units (auxilia) of the army were completely reorganized and given regular status. Trained to the same standards of discipline as the legions, the men were long-serving professional soldiers like the legionaries and served in units that were equally permanent. Drawn from a wide range of peoples throughout the provinces, especially on the fringes of the Empire, the auxilia were non-citizens and would receive Roman citizenship upon completion of their twenty-five years under arms.

The period 1944-45 was one of change for the Panzer Divisions. In summer 1944 the new-type Panzer Division was introduced with a reduction in the number of tanks, a change that was mainly seen in North-West Europe. On the Eastern Front, where the bulk of the Panzer Divisions were still employed, the organizational changes were introduced only slowly, mainly during periods of rest and refit. In 1945 the division was again reorganized with a reduced strength to reflect the deteriorating German manufacturing capability and to incorporate news weapons such as the Panther (Mark V). This volume provides a detailed examination on the late-war changes to the German Army Panzer forces and the formation of new units, from the collapse on the Eastern Front, through operations on the Western Front in Normandy and the Ardennes, to the final battle for Berlin in 1945. The major organizational changes that took place in this intensive period are examined, together with the adaptation of German armored doctrine, tactics, and the command system. Details of unit histories and operations, illustrated in color maps, are also provided in this packed treatment.