"The old objection to philosophy that it is 'impractical' seems to have as one of its best targets Kant's philosophy. The essay responds to this objection in the name of philosophy in general & in his own name as a philosopher whose thoughts were & still are commonly believed to be singularly applicable to the realities of politics & everyday life. This essay is of prime importance in reaching a just estimate of the contribution philosophy, including Kantian philosophy, can make to the practical solution of human problems."—Lewis White Beck In this essay, 1st published in 1793, Kant considers the alleged conflict between theory & practice in the conduct of human affairs in three widening contexts: those of the common person faced with a moral decision, of the politician & the citizen concerned with the extent of political obligation, &, finally, of the citizen of the world whose actions have a bearing on war & peace among nations. Unlike other animals, people must decide how they will live their lives. They therefore ask for a guide to action, a set of principles, a theory. From the outset, Kant rejects the ancient claim that the practical possibilities of action cannot always be reconciled with moral demands. He offers his own moral theory, a theory starting out from the principle of the right as an unequivocal guide to action. In partial disagreement with the rival theories of Hobbes & Locke, he proposes that the only condition under which the individual can achieve true destiny as a member of the species is the civil state. Such a state can be secured only by law. Although "from such crooked wood as man is made of, nothing perfectly straight can be built," only the rule of law can bring about a stable society. Last, he turns to the relation between theory & practice in international relations. "Nowhere," he writes, "does human nature appear less lovable than in the relation of whole nations to each other." But to hope for world peace on the basis of "the so-called balance of power is a mere chimera." There is no other remedy to international lawlessness than an international coercive law, & such law can grow only out of sound theory. "I put my trust in theory. At the same time, I trust in the nature of things, & also take account of human nature, which I cannot, or will not, consider so steeped in evil that in the end reason should not triumph." Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was one of the most important philosophers of the 18th century. His Critique of Pure Reason continues to influence thinkers & critics today. E.B. Ashton is translator of many works, including Kant's Political Thought: Its Origins & Development & Primal Vision: Selected Writings of Gottfried Benn. George Miller (1920- ) is James S. McDonnell Distinguished University Professor, Emeritus, at Princeton University. His books include Language & Speech & Mathematics & Psychology.
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Immanuel Kant was an 18th-century philosopher from Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia). He's regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of modern Europe & of the late Enlightenment. His most important work is The Critique of Pure Reason, an investigation of reason itself. It encompasses an attack on traditional metaphysics & epistemology, & highlights his own contribution to these areas. Other main works of his maturity are The Critique of Practical Reason, which is about ethics, & The Critique of Judgment, about esthetics & teleology. Pursuing metaphysics involves asking questions about the ultimate nature of reality. Kant suggested that metaphysics can be reformed thru epistemology. He suggested that by understanding the sources & limits of human knowledge we can ask fruitful metaphysical questions. He asked if an object can be known to have certain properties prior to the experience of that object. He concluded that all objects that the mind can think about must conform to its manner of thought. Therefore if the mind can think only in terms of causality–which he concluded that it does–then we can know prior to experiencing them that all objects we experience must either be a cause or an effect. However, it follows from this that it's possible that there are objects of such a nature that the mind cannot think of them, & so the principle of causality, for instance, cannot be applied outside experience: hence we cannot know, for example, whether the world always existed or if it had a cause. So the grand questions of speculative metaphysics are off limits, but the sciences are firmly grounded in laws of the mind. Kant believed himself to be creating a compromise between the empiricists & the rationalists. The empiricists believed that knowledge is acquired thru experience alone, but the rationalists maintained that such knowledge is open to Cartesian doubt and that reason alone provides us with knowledge. Kant argues, however, that using reason without applying it to experience will only lead to illusions, while experience will be purely subjective without first being subsumed under pure reason. Kant’s thought was very influential in Germany during his lifetime, moving philosophy beyond the debate between the rationalists & empiricists. The philosophers Fichte, Schelling, Hegel and Schopenhauer saw themselves as correcting and expanding Kant's system, thus bringing about various forms of German Idealism. Kant continues to be a major influence on philosophy to this day, influencing both Analytic and Continental philosophy.
